Academic writing needs to be specific and objective. It is very important to present a variety of opinions on controversial issues to achieve the highest level of scholarship. It is also important to check for possible biases and use primary sources whenever possible.
You need sources to substantiate for readers everything that is not common knowledge. It is not enough to say you found something in multiple places, or that “research suggests. You need to specifically cite those sources. One source is usually not enough for controversial or complicated issues. It is much stronger to use multiple sources to allow the reader to see the balance of evidence, but choose the best sources to support your case. For example, if you claim that universal basic education (UBE) school project have improved educational opportunities for less privileged school children, several current sources need to be cited along with reliable data that provides evidence to support this claim.
Choosing only the evidence that supports an argument weakens the writer’s credibility. If there is evidence that appears to refute the researcher’s claim, that evidence must be addressed and effectively challenged.
The writing needs to be clear, precise, and devoid of redundancy and hyperbole.
Use no more words than are necessary to convey your meaning. Don’t use five words when two can do.
Both over- and understatement should be avoided. Statements should be specific and topical sentences established for all paragraphs. The flow of words should be smooth and comprehensible, and bridges should be established between ideas. To truly appreciate the complexities of the world and the intricacies of human experience, it is essential that we understand how we can be misled by the apparent evidence of our experiences (Gilovitch, 1991).
If an author agrees with our thinking, we are less apt to question his or her research and the evidence provided. Thus, we need to think clearly about our experiences, question our own assumptions, and challenge what we think we know; even when the data agree with what we believe is true.
How you state something is almost as important as what you state. Paraphrasing is preferred over direct quotes. Often writers who are developing their own voice have a tendency to use too many direct quotes from other authors. This is tedious for the reader, and likely to leave him or her wondering what you have to say that is original.
Wherever possible, paraphrase the work of other authors instead of quoting them directly. A paraphrase is not a summary. You can think about a paraphrase as explaining a main or complex point to a colleague. When you paraphrase you include the ideas or information from a source by rephrasing those thoughts or information in your own words.
A successful paraphrasing is concise, precise, does not change the meaning you are trying to convey, and is properly cited. Without proper citation, your paraphrase could be construed as plagiarism.
When using scholarly paraphrasing, your voice is heard and supports the research findings. This means that you should not begin a sentence by naming the author you are paraphrasing (do not start a sentence with According to… or that Research supports or Research shows).
The focus of the sentence should not be on the author(s) but rather on the important thoughts offered in the paraphrase. Ideas are usually more important than who presented them-unless you are comparing/contrasting different authors. By keeping the ideas in the foreground (and citations in the background), continuity, clarity, and comprehension are all improved. This reflects a high level of scholarly writing.
Avoid: Matthews (2016) pointed out that there are three major forms of research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods.
Use: There are three major forms of research: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed (Mathews, 2016).
Avoid: Ayo (2016) said “students should buy all my books” (p. 43).
Use: In an effort to increase book sales, Ayo (2016) intimated that students should purchase all his books.
Avoid: In a study by Musa (2018) it was found that mass failure in Mathematics examinations occur more in private schools than public schools.
Use: Mass failure in Mathematics examinations occur more in private schools than in public schools (Musa, 2018).
When using a correct paraphrasing version your voice is heard and supports the research findings. To reiterate: Do not always use the phrase ‘according to,’ or start a sentence with an authors’ name or ‘The author found…’or ‘Researchers determined/showed/.found’…. When reporting the findings from a study, start with the findings rather than the author.
Avoid: Ibrahim and Ayo (2018) found that undergraduate students have difficulty paraphrasing.
Use: Undergraduate students have difficulty paraphrasing (Ibrahim & Ayo, 2018).
Words are weapons vested with great power. They create, as well as mirror reality. They serve to advance certain ideals, images, and sets of assumptions. They play an important role in creating the conditions for scholarly discourse.
All research projects, and thus theses/dissertations, require a voluminous amount of reading from texts, journals, periodicals, newspapers, Web pages, archived documents, and so on. Successful researchers have employed the following tasks to help make their readings more productive.
The following will help make your reading more constructive and help you get familiar with different styles and format of scholarly language:
1. Take time to reflect on what it is you are hoping to find before you begin to read.
2. Survey the table of contents and note major headings.
3. If there are chapter summaries in a text, or an abstract for a paper, read them before exploring the chapter or paper.
4. As you read, try to relate the information to something you are already familiar with.
5. Take notes or highlight important ideas. If you can do this at the keyboard, you can save yourself quite a bit of time.
6. Check for patterns that the author might be applying such as:
· Cause and effect: The author explains a situation or theory and then delves into the consequences of its application.
· Compare/contrast: The author examines two or more different theories or situations and their relationship to each other.
· Process-description: A certain concept, program, or project is delineated and then examples are provided.
· Sequential: A case is built in a linear or historical manner.
7. Be an active reader. Always ask yourself questions about what you are reading: What is the author’s purpose? What conclusions does the author come to? Is this reasonable? Who else supports this view? How does this document relate to my study?
8. Where you read is important. Reading at night, in bed, doesn't work for many people because it makes them sleepy (which means that you may not comprehend the information).Everyone is different, however, so read in a place that's comfortable, free of distractions, and that has good lighting – this is important even when you are reading from a screen.
9. Imagine the author is personally speaking with you (just like this guide is speaking to you).
10. Checking out recent dissertations from your university or in online databases in areas that you wish to investigate can be extremely helpful. You will notice there is a great deal of variety with regard to quality and style between dissertations.